Journal of Environmental Treatment Techniques 2015, Volume 3, Issue 4, Pages: 184-200

184

Planetary Boundaries Must not be Crossed for the Survival of

Humanity

Haradhan Kumar Mohajan

Premier University, Chittagong, Bangladesh

Received: 14/11/2015 Accepted: 11/12/2015 Published: 30/12/2015

Abstract

At present we are living in an increasingly globalized world. The scientific impact of the planetary boundary framework is

based on biological, physical and chemical structures, and also is an important item for the sustainability. During the last five

decades, global population, food production, and energy consumption have increased remarkably. For the growing population,

sustainable economic development and standard of living, including living space, food, fuel, and other materials by sustaining

ecosystem services and biodiversity are necessary. This article tries to identify the sustainable development policy on the basis of

planetary boundaries. This planet has limited natural resources but human beings are using these in unplanned and competitive

ways. Since 2008 scientists have been identified nine planetary boundary processes. These provide a safe space for innovation,

growth and development in the detection of human prosperity. Out of these nine boundaries four have already been passed due to

human activities and two boundaries still need to be determined. If these nine boundaries passed due to unconsciousness and

unplanned activities of humankind, then the living organisms of the earth will face threat for the survival. The paper analyzes

sufficient theoretical analysis to make it interesting to the readers. The study stresses on sustainable development policy for the

welfare of humanities. The results of the study are presented by chemical reactions and sufficient numerical scientific data. An

attempt has been taken here to create consciousness among the nations of the world about the effects of the crossing of the

planetary boundaries.

Keywords: Biodiversity, Environmental Sustainability, Greenhouse Gas Emissions, Nitrogen and Phosphorus Cycle, Planetary

Boundaries.

1 Introduction

1

At the end of the 20

th

and at the beginning of the 21

st

century the concept of planetary boundaries (PBs) become

a pioneer issue to the environment experts. These are

common and essential items for all nations of the world. PB

concept rests on three branches of scientific inquiry are as

follows:

1. Earth system and sustainability science.

2. Scale of human action in relation to the capacity

of the planet to sustain it.

3. Shocks and abrupt change in social-ecological

systems from local to global scales.

Different aspects of the environment, such as, biological

(biotic), physical (abiotic), social, cultural, and

technological factors affect the health status of human

population as well as other species within the ecosystems

[1]

During the past five decades, global population, food

production, and energy consumption have increased

approximately 2.5-fold, 3-fold and 5-fold, respectively [38,

48]. As the global human population is growing faster, the

additional land will be needed for living space and

Corresponding author: Haradhan Kumar Mohajan,

Premier University, Chittagong, Bangladesh, Email:

haradhan_km@yahoo.com.

agricultural production. An important issue is how to meet

growing human demands for living space, food, fuel, and

other materials by sustaining ecosystem services and

biodiversity [80].

Global increase of fertilizer use, fossil fuel consumption

and the cultivation of leguminous crops, have been doubled

the rate at which biologically available nitrogen (N

2

) enters

the terrestrial biosphere compared to preindustrial levels

[45].

Industrial and anthropogenic activities have increased

air pollution that cause serious global environmental

problem. As a result agricultural production and water

supply has reduced, human health deteriorated, ozone

depletion created serious problem in the atmosphere.

2 Literature Review

In 2009, a group of 29 internationally renowned

scientists led by Johan Rockström and Will Steffen have

identified and quantified a set of nine PBs [103]. The

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) and N.

Stern expressed that global warming is due to continuous

increase of GHG emissions which causes global climate

change [56, 119]. The Economics of Ecosystems and

Biodiversity (TEEB) indicated that at present more than

100 species out of a million are going extinct each year.

The proposed boundary is set at 10 species per million

species per year [122]. Rockström and his co-authors

Journal web link: http://www.jett.dormaj.com/

J. Environ. Treat. Tech.

ISSN: 2309-1185

Journal of Environmental Treatment Techniques 2015, Volume 3, Issue 4, Pages: 184-200

185

studied that the cycles of Nitrogen (N

2

) and Phosphorus (P)

are essential for plant growth on the earth [105]. R. J. Diaz

and R. Rosenberg indicated that excess N

2

and P are liable

to negative human health and environmental impacts such

as, groundwater pollution and loss of habitat and

biodiversity [26]. A. Webb studied that the ozone layer is

natural filter and protective shield that surrounds the earth

to protect human, animal fish and plants from the harmful

ultra violet (UV–B) radiations [138]. M. Molina and F.S.

Rowland confirmed that human produced chemicals could

destroy O

3

and deplete the ozone layer [85]. WHO and

UNICEF estimated that about 4,500 children die in a day

for the lack of drinking water supply and sanitation

facilities. About 1.8 million people die every year from

diarrhoeal diseases [141]. B. Rimal indicated that land use

change effects on global environmental change and

landscape ascription [101]. IPCC demonstrated that

ambient aerosol particles are responsible for adverse health

effects, creation of haze pollution both in urban and in the

rural area, visibility reduction on human and influence on

climate [56]. J. C. Orr and his co-authors revealed that

ocean acidification effects on food webs, fisheries

(shellfish), marine ecosystems (corals, coralline algae,

mollusks and some plankton), coastal erosion and tourism

[91]. The US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

estimated that there are 80,000 to 100,000 chemicals on the

global market [131]. B. Lomborg stated that hundreds of

tons of hazardous waste are released to the air, water, and

land by industry every hour of every day and the chemical

industry is the biggest source of such waste [71].

3 Methodology of the Study

The article is prepared on the basis of secondary data of

previous published articles, books and various research

reports of the scientists. In this study we have contributed

the knowledge and experience of the present human

activities that making the earth to the unsafe place for the

living organisms in future. The concept of the planetary

boundary comes in the beginning of the 21

st

century. Due to

population growth there is an enormous change in global

economy. At the same time with competitive economy the

industrialized countries emit greenhouse gases which cause

global climate change. Ocean acidification, stratospheric

ozone depletion, atmospheric aerosol loading, excess use of

nitrogen and phosphorus, and chemical pollution has

created serious problems for the safe survival of the

humankind and other creatures. Land is one of the most

important natural resources and used for residential,

commercial and agricultural purposes. But human beings

are overusing the lands for their needs which are threat for

the future generations. Water is an essential element for all

living organisms. But the use and abuse of water has

increased widespread water scarcity, water quality

deterioration, and the destruction of freshwater resources.

We need to think and act accordingly to make the earth safe

and nice living place for the future generation. In 2009, a

group of 29 internationally renowned scientists led by

Johan Rockström and Will Steffen identified and quantified

a set of nine PBs for the so-called ‘safe space for

humanity’. In this study we have worked on the nine PBs to

send message to all nations for the consciousness of these

PBs.

4 Aims and Objective of the Study

The aim and objective of this study is to identify

sustainable development policy on the basis of planetary

boundaries. The scientists have been identified nine

planetary boundaries. Beyond of these boundaries

anthropogenic change will put the earth system outside a

safe operating space for humanity. The 21

st

century faces

critical social and economic problems and we have to work

together for the survival of the humanity by solving these

problems efficiently. We hope the readers will be benefited

and will be realized the importance of the planetary

boundary for the sustainable development at present and in

future.

5 Brief Histories of Planetary Boundaries

In 2008, an interdisciplinary group of scientists started

the discussions about planetary boundaries (PBs) in a

workshop convened by the Stockholm Resilience Centre,

the Stockholm Environment Institute and the Tällberg

Foundation. In 2009, a group of 29 internationally

renowned scientists (led by Johan Rockström from the

Stockholm Resilience Centre and Will Steffen from the

Australian National University) identified and quantified a

set of nine PBs within which humanity can continue to

develop and thrive for generations to come, the so-called

‘safe space for humanity’. After 2009, the concept of PBs

has gained strong interest not only throughout the scientific

community but also within the world of policy-making and

civil society [94, 103].

The PBs provides a safe space for innovation, growth

and development in the pursuit of human prosperity. Within

this safe operating space, low likelihood of harming the

earth’s life support systems, such that they are able to

continue to support growth and human development [102].

Earlier approaches of PB were [42]: i) human actions as

embedded in earth’s life-support system [89], ii) a human-

dominated planet [134], and iii) work in ecological

economics on global biophysical constraints for the

expansion of the economic subsystem [17, 22, 23].

Johan Rockström and his co-authors in a Nature Feature

argued that “To avoid catastrophic environmental change

humanity must stay within defined planetary boundary for a

range of essential Earth-system processes. If one boundary

is transgressed, then safe levels for other processes would

risk triggering abrupt or irreversible environmental

changes.” For example, converting the Amazon rainforest

to a grassland or savanna could influence atmospheric

circulation globally and ultimately affect water resources in

Eastern Asia through changes in rainfall [103].

The concept of PBs has recently been introduced

towards the earth system, through which it becomes

possible to define the biological, physical and chemical

structures that enable the development of complex human

societies in the last 10,000 years (the Holocene period

during which we developed agriculture, villages, cities and

contemporary civilizations) to define a ‘Safe Operating

Space for Humanity’ [24]. Human societies developed

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186

since Holocene period from small groups of hunter-

gatherers through larger agricultural communities to global

urban-industrial society in the 21

st

century [60]. The

Anthropocene (anthropo for man and cene for new) started

around the beginning of 1800 with the Industrial

Revolution in England and concluded its first stage after

World War II in 1945. In the Anthropocene, human is

accelerating departure from the stable environmental

conditions of the past 12,000 years into a new, unknown

state of the earth. This period has been characterized

mainly by an enormous expansion in the use of fossil fuels,

first coal and then oil and gas. The 2

nd

stage of

Anthropocene started in 1945 and is coming to an end in

these very years [21, 116]. The PBs are values for control

variables that are either at a ‘safe’ distance from thresholds,

for processes with evidence of threshold behavior or at

dangerous levels for processes without evidence of

thresholds [103].

The precedent era the ‘Holocene’ has permitted human

civilizations to thrive, especially because it guaranteed a

stable warm period (for 10,000 years ca.) without dramatic

variations, which is not usual in the history of humans’

appearance on the earth [117].

Nine planetary boundary (PB) processes have been

identified, which are as follows (figure 1): Climate change,

stratospheric ozone depletion, ocean acidification, land use

change, freshwater use, rate of biodiversity loss,

interference with global nitrogen and phosphorus cycles,

aerosol loading and chemical pollution have been identified

[102]. A clear strength of the nine PB frameworks is that it

offers a comprehensive and possibly exhaustive set of non-

weighted variables to capture key global environmental

challenges rather than existing single-issue indicators and

footprint tools, for example, the carbon footprint as an

indicator of national environmental performance. Seven of

these nine were possible to quantify at present by

identifying control variables (e.g., for climate change,

atmospheric CO

2

concentration) and setting specific

boundary values (e.g., 350 ppm CO

2

) [88]. These nine

boundaries are expected to lead to an increased risk to one

or more aspects of human wellbeing, or would undermine

the resilience of the earth system as a whole [102]. Beyond

of these boundaries anthropogenic change will put the earth

system outside a safe operating space for humanity [73].

The identification of the nine Bs was not based on available

data and two have not yet been quantified (table 1).

Table 1: The nine planetary boundaries [103].

Earth system process

Control variables

Proposed

boundary

Most recent

measurement

Climate change

1. Atmospheric CO

2

concentration (parts per million).

2. Change in radioactive forcing (W/m

2

).

350 ppm

+1 W/m

2

393.81 ppm

+1.87 W/m

2

Ocean acidification

Global mean saturation state of aragonite in surface sea water.

2.75

2.90

Stratospheric ozone

Depletion

Concentration of ozone (Dobson units).

276 DU

283 DU

Biogeochemical

flows: nitrogen cycle

and phosphorus

cycle

1. Amount of N

2

removed from the atmosphere for human use

(millions of tons per year).

2. Quantity of P flowing into the oceans (millions of tons per

year).

35 Mt

11 Mt

121 Mt

8.5–9.5 Mt

Atmospheric aerosol

loading

Overall particulate concentration in the atmosphere, on a

regional basis.

To be

determined

To be

determined

Fresh water use

Consumption of fresh water by humans (km

3

per year).

4,000 km

3

2,600 km

3

Land use change

Percentage of global land cover converted to cropland.

15%

11.7%

Rate of biodiversity

loss

Extinction rate (number of species per million species per

year).

10 E/MSY

>100 E/MSY

Chemical pollution

For example, amount emitted to, or concentration of persistent

organic pollutants, plastics, endocrine disrupters, heavy metals

and nuclear waste in the global environment, or the effect on

ecosystem and functioning thereof.

To be

determined

To be

determined

The red areas show the position of each boundary. The

safe operating spaces for the boundaries are within the

green area (Figure 1). Out of these nine boundaries four

have already been passed due to human activities: Climate

change, loss of biosphere integrity, land-system change,

altered biogeochemical cycles (phosphorus and nitrogen),

whilst two boundaries still need to be determined

(atmospheric aerosol loading and chemical pollution). Two

of these, climate change and biosphere integrity, the

scientists call ‘core boundaries’ [118]. It is estimated that

within a very short time world will face the difficulties of

shortage of freshwater, change in land use, ocean

acidification and interference with the global phosphorous

cycle [102].

The PBs are not fixed and they represent estimates of

how close to an uncertainty zone that the global human

community can act, without seriously challenging the

continuation of the current state of the planet [43].

6.1 Climate Change

Global warming is due to continuous increase of GHG

emissions. The current concentrations of GHG in space

have increased since the industrial revolution (in 1750)

from a CO

2

equivalent of 280 parts per million (ppm) to

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187

450 ppm [84, 119]. The global surface temperature has

increased ≈ 0.2

0

C per decade in the last three decades.

Global warming is now +0.6

0

C in the past three decades

and +0.8

0

C in the past century, and continued warming in

the first half of the 21

st

century is consistent with the recent

rate of +0.2

0

C per decade [50, 81]. The atmospheric

concentrations of CO

2

grew 80% from 1970 to 2004, and

recently exceed by far the natural range over the last

650,000 years [56].

Scientific research shows that ice loss from Antarctica

and Greenland has accelerated over the last 20 years which

will raise the sea level. From satellite data and climate

models, scientists calculated that the two polar ice sheets

are losing enough ice to raise sea levels by 1.3 mm each

year and scientists observed that the sea levels are rising by

about 3 mm per year. By 2006, the Greenland and Antarctic

sheets were losing a combined mass of 475 Gt of ice per

year. If these increases continue water from the two polar

ice sheets could have added 15 cm to the average global sea

level by 2050. A rise of similar size is expected to come

from a combination of melt water from mountain glaciers

and thermal expansion of sea water [9].

Figure 1: Planetary Boundaries [102]

Climate boundary is based on two critical thresholds

parameters: Atmospheric concentration of CO

2

and

radiative forcing [56]. The PB for climate change was

proposed the CO

2

level as a maximum 350 ppm (table 1)

and in 2014 it is crossed 400 ppm. The radiative forcing

should not exceed 1 Wm

–2

above pre-industrial levels but

the change in radiative forcing is 1.8 Wm

–2

[105, 107].

In the 21

st

century carbon budget of 1,456 GtCO

2

would

result in a lower than 2°C warming at 450 CO

2

eq. At the

time of this analysis in 2007, this global carbon budget

would correspond to annual emissions of 14.5 GtCO

2

/y,

and per capita emissions of no more than 2 tons CO

2

/y [77,

126].

More recent analysis expresses that 2

0

C target requires

21 GtCO

2

eq/y in 2050, and assuming that 76% of these are

CO

2

emissions give a budget of 16 GtCO

2

/y [129]. It is true

that about 50% of global CO

2

emissions produced by 11%

of people.

6.2 Rate of Biodiversity Loss

Biodiversity is the natural capital we depend on to

sustain ecosystem functions, which is another PB of major

concern that has been passed. Before industrialization the

extinction rate was less than one species per million species

each year. At present more than 100 species out of a

million are going extinct each year. The proposed boundary

is set at 10 species per million species per year [122]. In the

last 20 years, about half of the recorded extinctions are

primarily due to land-use change, species introductions, and

increasingly climate change [94]. Biodiversity is not only

about species numbers but also concerns variability in

terms of habitats, ecosystems, and biomes [90].

Biodiversity is one of the four “slow” boundaries,

which seem to be associated with local-to-regional scale

thresholds rather than global ones [104]. Biodiversity loss

is considered as the single boundary where current rates of

extinction put the earth system furthest outside the safe

operating space. It is a slow process without known global-

level thresholds, that there is incomplete knowledge on the

role of biodiversity for ecosystem functioning across scales,

and that the suggested boundary position was therefore

highly uncertain [73]. Loss of biodiversity is now called

‘Change in biosphere integrity’.

Conversion of forest to cropland, increased use of

nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizers, and increased

extraction of freshwater for irrigation could all act together

to reduce biodiversity more than if each of these variables

acted independently [102].

If the corals are degraded due to temperature rise, as a

consequence of climate change, not only the corals

disappear but also the fish species associated with them

[46].

6.3 Nitrogen and Phosphorus Cycle

Nitrogen (N

2

) and Phosphorus (P) move among the

atmosphere, soil, water, and organisms in a process called

the nitrogen (figure 2) and phosphorus cycle, respectively.

Both are biogeochemical cycles and are very important for

ecosystems. This transformation can be carried out through

both biological and physical processes [144]. The cycles of

N

2

and P are essential for plant growth on the earth. The

availability of N

2

and P in the biosphere has increased

massively over the last decades [105]. The production of

industrial fertilizer and the cultivation of leguminous crops

are major causes to increase of large scale N

2

and P. Since

the increased production of N

2

fertilizers through the

Haber–Bosch process and increased mining of phosphate

rock, the consumption of inorganic fertilizers in agriculture

has increased exponentially. Between 1950 and 1994, there

was a sustained increase in global annual consumption of

N

2

and P fertilizers from 3 to 74 million tons N

2

and from

2.4 to 13 million tons P [74].

The increased use of N

2

and P fertilizers has allowed for

producing the food necessary to support the rapidly

growing human population [44]. On the other hand

mobilized N

2

and P in watersheds enter groundwater and

surface water and are transported through freshwater to

coastal marine systems has resulted negative human health

and environmental impacts such as, groundwater pollution,

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188

loss of habitat and biodiversity, an increase in frequency

and severity of harmful algal blooms, eutrophication,

hypoxia and fish kills [26, 98, 124].

6.3.1 Nitrogen Cycle

Nitrogen gas (N

2

) comprises 79% of the earth’s

atmosphere. There are about 5 billion metric tons of N

2

contained in the atmosphere, ocean, terrestrial and marine

biota, soil organic matter and sedimentary rocks, and less

than 2% is available to organisms. N

2

is present in the

environment in a wide variety of chemical forms like,

organic N

2

, ammonium (NH

4

+

), nitrite (NO

2

−

), nitrate

(NO

3

−

), nitrous oxide (N

2

O), nitric oxide (NO) or inorganic

nitrogen gas (N

2

). Nitrogen is plentiful in the atmosphere,

but limited in soils because of the strength of the triple

bond that holds the two nitrogen atoms together and often

constrains plant growth. To increase food production

farmers use N

2

fertilizer. N

2

cycle consists of following

processes: i) nitrogen fixation, ii) mineralization, iii)

nitrification, iv) immobilization, v) denitrification, vi)

volatilization, and vii) leaching [13].

Figure 2: Nitrogen Cycle [61]

Simple interpretations of these 7 items are as follows [61]:

Fixation: Fixation is the conversion of atmospheric N

2

to a

plant available form. This process is happen during the

production of commercial fertilizers or during a biological

process (legumes such as alfalfa, soybeans and clovers

convert atmospheric N

2

with specific bacteria, to a form

plants can use). For this process requires energy, enzymes

and minerals;

N

2

→NH

3

→R–NH

2

where ‘R’ indicates hydrocarbon ion.

Mineralization: Mineralization is the process by which

microbes decompose organic N

2

from manure, organic

matter and crop residues to ammonium;

R–NH

2

→NH

3

→NH

4

+

.

Nitrification: Nitrification is the process by which

microorganisms convert ammonium to nitrate to obtain

energy;

NH

4

+

→NO

2

–

→ NO

3

–

.

Immobilization: Immobilization refers to the process in

which nitrate and ammonium are taken up by soil

organisms and therefore become unavailable to crops;

NH

4

+

and/or NO

3

–

→ R–NH

2

.

Denitrification: Denitrification occurs when N

2

is lost

through the conversion of nitrate to gaseous forms of N

2

,

such as nitric oxide, nitrous oxide and dinitrogen gas;

NO

3

–

→NO

2

–

→ NO→ N

2

O →N

2

.

Volatilization: Volatilization is the loss of N

2

through the

conversion of ammonium to ammonia gas, which is

released to the atmosphere;

H

2

N–CO–NH

2

→NH

4

+

→ NH

3

.

Leaching: Leaching is a pathway of N

2

loss of a high

concern to water quality. Soil particles do not preserve

nitrate very well because both are negatively charged. As a

result, nitrate easily moves with water in the soil.

Hence, in the N

2

cycle processes of fixation,

mineralization and nitrification increase plant available N

2

.

On the other hand denitrification, volatilization,

immobilization, and leaching decrease N

2

permanently or

temporarily from the root zone.

N

2

is an essential nutrient for organisms as an integral

part of DNA and RNA, amino acids and chlorophyll

(essential for photosynthesis) [114]. N

2

is also an essential

element required for the growth and maintenance of all

biological tissues of all living creatures, and often limits

primary production in terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems

[30, 69]. When deficient of N

2

is happened, root systems

and plant growth are stunted, older leaves turn yellow and

the crop is low in crude protein. Without N

2

plants will not

grow and we would not exist without food. N

2

fertilizers

have increased supply of food; feed and other bio-based

huge raw materials and also have improved the use

efficiency of land and labor [109].

About 121 million tons of N

2

is used (the proposed

boundary is set at 35 million tons per year or 5 kg per

capita) from the atmosphere per year into reactive forms to

make fertilizer for food production and other non-food

cultivation [39]. According to current trajectories this

figure will be more than 600 million tons per year in 2100

[40]. Finally this N

2

releases in the environment polluting

waterways and the coastal zone, accumulating in land

systems and adding some N

2

to the atmosphere [74].

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189

N

2

O has risen in the atmosphere as a result of

agricultural fertilization, biomass burning, cattle and

feedlots and industrial sources [14]. It is one of the non-

CO

2

GHGs and causes global warming in the atmosphere

[74]. N

2

is also associated with the formation of smog, acid

rain and tropospheric ozone, depletion of stratospheric

ozone and negatively affects the quality of groundwater and

surface water. Hence, it has a serious impact on the health

of plants, animals and men, on the quality of ecosystems

and on biodiversity. It imposes a negative impact on the

quality of the environment and contributes to the depletion

of fossil fuel reserves [109].

Ammonia (NH

3

) in the atmosphere has tripled as the

result of human activities. It is a reactant in the atmosphere,

where it acts as an aerosol, decreasing air quality and

clinging to water droplets, eventually resulting in nitric acid

(HNO

3

) that produces acid rain. Atmospheric NH

3

and

HNO

3

also damage respiratory systems [114].

The N

2

cycle is of particular interest to ecologists

because N

2

availability can affect the rate of key ecosystem

processes, including primary production and

decomposition. Human activities such as fossil fuel

combustion, use of artificial N

2

fertilizers, and release of N

2

in wastewater have dramatically changed the global N

2

cycle [45].

Ecosystem processes can increase with N

2

fertilization

but anthropogenic input can also result in N

2

saturation,

which weakens productivity and can damage the health of

plants, animals, fish, and humans [133]. At present about

33% of global N

2

‘budget’ used to produce meat for the

EU.

6.3.2 The Phosphorus Cycle

The phosphorus cycle is the biogeochemical cycle that

describes the movement of phosphorus through the

lithosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere. Phosphate erodes

from rocks and minerals. Plants are able to incorporate

phosphate found in the soil into their tissues. This

phosphate is then passed on to the next trophic level when

consumers eat the producers (plants). Consumers assimilate

this phosphate into teeth, bones, shells, etc. As these

organisms die, their phosphates, once again, become

available for plants to repeat the cycle [148].

Although phosphorus (P) is of great biological

importance, it is not abundant in the biosphere. P is the 11

th

abundant element in the crust of the earth, comprising

approximately 0.1% by mass and 13

th

in seawater [114]. P

was discovered in Hamburg, Germany by alchemist Hennig

Brand in 1669 by heating urine to high temperatures

[7,32,47]. The human adult body contains about 1.5 kg of

P, mostly in the bones. There is no known substitute for P.

It is one of the three key components of fertilizers. It is

crucial for the world’s food supply. About 90% of P is used

globally for food production. In agriculture, P is involved in

energy metabolism and biosynthesis of nucleic acids and

cell membranes and is required for energy transfer

reactions, respiration, and photosynthesis. Plants require

highest 0.3–0.5% P in dry matter during vegetative growth

[142]. Collectively, Morocco, China, South Africa, the

USA, Jordan and Russia hold over 95% of known, high

quality, economically-recoverable phosphate rock. The

USA is fast running out of its domestic high-grade reserves

and is increasingly importing rock from Morocco to

process into high grade fertilizer for sale on the world

market [113]. Morocco holds approximately 82–85% of

global reserves, followed by China at about 12% [58].

It provides the phosphate-ester backbone of DNA (the

genetic material of most life) and RNA, and it is crucial in

the transmission of chemical energy through the adenosine

triphosphate (ATP) molecule (the energy-releasing

molecule) and adenosine diphosphate (ADP). It is found as

phosphates (H

2

PO

4

–

, HPO

4

2–

and PO

4

3–

), (for example, as

phosphoproteins and phospholipids) in cellular membranes,

in bones and teeth (the biomineral hydroxyapatite) [92,97].

Phosphate is taken up directly by plants, algae and some

bacteria. Other sources of phosphates are the waste and

remains of animals and plants, bird and bat guano

accumulations and apatite (Ca

10

(PO

4

)

6

(OH, F, Cl)

2

).

Apatite is the most common naturally occurring P

containing mineral in the earth’s crust (over 95% of P). It is

also found in high concentrations in sedimentary rocks

containing the fossilized waste or sediments of marine

plants or animal [57].

It is also found in the form of inorganic phosphate on

land, in the form of phosphate rock containing the

fossilized waste, soil minerals and sediments of marine

plants or animal, as dissolved phosphate and phosphate

sediments. P cannot be manufactured or extracted from the

atmosphere as like N

2

. P cannot be destroyed, since it has

no gaseous phase. Humans excrete between 3–4 grams

daily in urine but cows and hogs excrete 15–20 times that

amount daily. Many tons of phosphate rock are mined each

year in the production of fertilizers to replace some of the

phosphates lost from farmland through erosion and crop

production [20].

When rocks and sediments gradually broke, phosphate is

released. Some phosphate stays on land and cycles between

organisms and soil. Plants bind phosphate into organic

compounds when they absorb it from soil or water. Organic

phosphate moves through the foods, from producers to

consumers, and to the rest of the ecosystem. Other

phosphate washes into rivers and streams, where it

dissolves. Some phosphate mixes to the ocean, where

marine organisms process and incorporate it into biological

compounds [62].

Phosphorus (P) is mined from rock and its uses range

from fertilizers to toothpaste. About 20 million tons of

phosphorus is mined every year and around 8.5–9.5 million

tons (the proposed boundary is set at 11 million tons per

year) of it finds its way into the oceans [8]. The original

definition was criticized, partly because of the uncertainty

of the science [108]. Global phosphate reserves are rapidly

being depleted, threatening the world’s future ability to

produce food. Phosphate rock, the basis for large scale

fertilizer production, is a non-renewable resource. Current

global phosphate reserves might be depleted in the next 50–

100 years, which is very significant for humanity. The US

reserves of P to be depleted in 25 years [64].

The original PB on the phosphorus cycle was included to

reflect the risk of a global ocean anoxic event that would

trigger a mass extinction of marine life [49].

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190

At the planetary scale, the additional amounts of N

2

and

P activated by humans are now so large that they

significantly perturb the global cycles of these two

important elements.

6.4 Stratospheric Ozone Depletion

Ozone gas (O

3

) is a very small portion of the

atmosphere, but its presence is vital to the welfare of the

entire living organisms. O

3

is found extensively (about 91%

of atmospheric O

3

) in the lower part of the stratosphere of

the earth’s atmosphere at the ozone layer. The ozone layer

is surrounding the atmosphere at an altitude between 20 and

50 km from the earth’s surface and with thickness ranges of

2–8 km where O

3

is continually created from O

2

, and

destroyed, by absorption of high-energy radiation from the

sun and chemical reactions. The ozone layer is natural filter

and protective shield that surrounds the earth to protect

human, animal fish and plants from the harmful ultra violet

(UV–B) radiations [138].

O

3

was discovered in the laboratory in the mid-1800. It

has pungent odor that helps to detect even there are very

small amount in the air. The ozone layer was discovered in

1913 by the French physicists Charles Fabry and Henri

Buisson. Its properties were discovered in detail by the

British meteorologist Gordon Miller Bourne Dobson, who

developed a simple spectrophotometer (the Dobson meter)

which is used to measure stratospheric O

3

from the ground.

Between 1928 and 1958 Dobson established a worldwide

network of O

3

monitoring stations that operates

continuously. Also the ‘Dobson unit (DU)’ is used to

measure the total amount of ozone in a column overhead

[112]. DUs are measured by how thick the layer of ozone

would be if it were compressed into one layer at 0

0

C and

with a pressure of one atmosphere above it. Every 0.01 mm

thickness of the layer is equal to one DU [4]. It is

discovered in the mid-1970s that human-produced

chemicals could destroy O

3

and deplete the ozone layer

[85]. Since the discovery it is observed that ozone depleting

chemicals are steadily increasing in the atmosphere. In the

ozone layer there are up to 12,000 ozone molecules for

every billion air molecules, but in the earth surface are 20

to 100 molecules in billion air molecules [34].

The most sever O

3

loss has been seen in Antarctica

during spring and winter, which is called ozone hole, as the

O

3

depletion is very large and localized there. In ozone hole

region stratospheric ozone depletion is so severe that levels

fall below 200 DU but normal concentration is 300 to 350

DU [2].

O

3

is destroyed by halogen source gases such as,

certain Chlorine (Cl

2

) and bromine (Br

2

) containing

chemicals. Most halogen source gases are converted in the

stratosphere to reactive halogen gasses, namely chlorine

monoxide (ClO) and bromine monoxide (BrO) in chemical

reactions involving ultraviolet radiation from the sun rays

and destroy O

3

[34]. Cl

2

can destroy about 100,000 ozone

molecules and Br

2

is more destructive than Cl

2

. Use of

chlorofluourocarbon (CFC) in refrigeration and air

conditioning equipment, methyl bromide for storing

agricultural crops and agricultural soil sterilization, fire

suppression, aerosol applications, foam blowing, sterilants,

and solvents are main causes of destruction of the ozone

layer [59, 125].

Excess of harmful UV-B rays create skin cancer

(damaging DNA) and cataracts in human, reduce crop

yields and disrupt the marine food chain by destroying

plankton in the ocean. Destruction of ozone layer can make

abrupt changes in weather and climate, desertification and

forest fires and the rise in sea level to the shores of many in

the world and disrupt the ecological balance [3].

6.4.1. Destructive Reactions of O

3

Depletion

Stratospheric O

3

destruction cycle is cycle 1 (say). This

cycle performs into two separate chemical reactions. The

cycle starts with ClO or Cl. First ClO reacts with O to form

Cl, and then Cl reacts with O

3

and reforms ClO. The cycle

then begins again with another of ClO with O. Because of

Cl or ClO is reformed each period, O

3

molecules are

destroyed and Cl is considered a catalyst for O

3

destruction.

Atomic O is formed when ultraviolet sunlight reacts with

O

3

and O

2

molecules [34].

ClO + O → Cl + O

2

Cl + O

3

→ ClO + O

2

Result: O + O

3

→ 2O

2

.

Polar O

3

destruction cycles are cycle 2 and cycle 3 (say).

As ClO abundances in Polar Regions, in cycle 2, ClO reacts

with another ClO in the presence of sunlight and destroys

O

3

[34].

ClO + ClO → (ClO)

2

(ClO)

2

+ sunlight (γ) → ClOO + Cl

ClOO → Cl + O

2

2Cl + 2O

3

→ 2ClO + 2O

2

Result: 2O

3

→ 3O

2

.

In cycle 3, ClO reacts with BrO in the presence of sunlight

creates Cl and Br. Finally, Cl and Br react with O

3

to

release O

2

, consequently destroy O

3

.

ClO + BrO → BrCl + O

2

BrCl + sunlight (γ) →Cl + Br

Cl + O

3

→ ClO + O

2

Br + O

3

→ BrO + O

2

.

Result: 2O

3

→ 3O

2

.

In cycle 4 (say), O

3

reacts with OH/HO

2

and creates O

2

and

OH, and this OH again start new cycle [68].

OH +O

3

→ HO

2

+ 2O

2

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191

HO

2

+O

3

→OH +O

2

Result: 2O

3

→3O

2

.

6.4.2 Steps to Reduce Ozone Depletion

In 1976, the United States Academy of Sciences linked

the release of ozone depleting substances (ODSs)

representatives from 24 countries signed the ‘1987

Montreal Protocol’ on ‘Substances that Deplete the Ozone

Layer’, agreeing to start phasing out the manufacturing of

ODSs in 1989 [128]. The treaty has been amended several

times, and at present more than 190 countries has ratified it.

In 1985, the British Antarctic Survey (BAS) reported the

damage to the ozone layer above the earth’s surface. Only

the USA and the UK account for more than 50% research,

followed by Germany and Japan for ozone depletion.

On December 17, 2014 the US Environmental

Protection Agency (EPA) proposed to lower the national

ambient air quality standards (NAAQS) level for O

3

to 65–

70 parts per billion (ppb). The current O

3

level is 75 ppb

[41].

6.5 Global Use of Freshwater

Water is an essential element for all socio-economic

development and for maintaining healthy ecosystems for

living organisms. It is the origin of every form of life. Fresh

water is essential for healthy and safe lives of human

beings. Adequate and safe water and sanitation services

make strength the nation’s health, education, life

expectancy, well-being and social development, economy,

security and ecology [87, 136].

Clean water is needed for drinking, cooking, washing,

and sanitation. It is also a key element of sustainable social

and economic development. Fresh water is found in lakes,

rivers, and groundwater aquifers. The use and abuse of

water has increased in the last few decades due to

population growth and economic expansion, which will

create widespread water scarcity, water quality

deterioration, and the destruction of freshwater resources

[63].

6.5.1 Source of Water

Less than 3% of the water of the earth is fresh; the rest is

sea water and undrinkable [136]. Of this more than 2.5% is

frozen, locked up in Antarctica, the Arctic and glaciers and

not available to human. Hence humanity must rely only on

0.5% of all human’s and ecosystems fresh water needs

[130]. Of this 0.5% of world water the major use is in the

following [137]:

 About 10

7

km

3

is stored in underground aquifers.

Since 1950 there has been a rapid expansion of

ground water exploitation providing 50% of all

drinking water, 40% industrial water and 20% of

irrigation water.

 About 119,000 km

3

net of rainfall is falling on

land after accounting for evaporation.

 About 19,000 km

3

is in natural lakes.

 More than 5,000 km

3

is manmade storage

facilities reservoirs, which has been 7 fold

increases in global storage capacity since 1950.

 About 2,120 km

3

water is in rivers.

Water resources are decreasing (especially in many

developing countries) across the planet. Even in the 21

st

century 1 person in 6 (1.1 billion people) has no access to

safe drinkable water and 42% of the world’s population

(2.6 billion people) live in families with no proper means of

sanitation. About 4,500 children died in a day for the lack

of drinking water supply and sanitation facilities. About 1.8

million people die every year from diarrhoeal diseases.

Most of the people of Africa (especially girls) have to

collect water from far distance and struggle to survive at

subsistence level [141]. Half of the urban population in

Africa, Asia, Latin America, and the Caribbean suffers

from one or more diseases associated with inadequate water

and sanitation [65].

6.5.2 Water for Sustainability

At the beginning of the 21

st

century, the demand for

clean water becomes a global challenge. Population growth,

rapid urbanization, industrialization, food production

practices, changing lifestyles, poor water use strategies and

economic development have led increase pressure on water

resources globally. On the other hand increasing demands

for sources of clean water, combined with changing land

use practices, aging infrastructure, and climate change and

variability pose significant threats to the international water

resources. Waterborne disease also continues to threaten

drinking water supplies [19,33].

Water is not distributed evenly around the world. About

9 countries of the world, for example, Brazil, Russia,

China, Canada, Indonesia, the USA, India, Columbia and

the Democratic Republic of Congo possess 60% of the

world’s available fresh water supply [136].

Despite the advances made during the past 40 years,

there are the 21

st

century challenges that continue to

threaten the water supplies of every country. Failure to

manage the water to every people in an integrated,

sustainable manner will limit economic prosperity and

jeopardize human and aquatic ecosystem health [33].

The hydrological projections of the world’s freshwater

resources have indicated that the demand of freshwater is

increasing worldwide [100]. Global water scarcity is

expected to grow dramatically as competition for water use

increases in agricultural, urban and commercial sectors

because of population growth and economic development

[135]. Many countries of the world are already facing water

crises; mainly (in some countries of Africa) those are in

arid and semi-arid regions.

Many governments, international institutions and

experts have expressed the urgent need to establish a new

development agenda in the field of water management [36].

About one-third of the world’s population lives in areas

where experience some form of water stress that figure is

likely to rise to two-thirds of the world’s population by

2025 [37,65]. About 70% of global water is used in

agriculture sector and it is expected the extra demand in

agriculture will grow by 45% by 2030, which is equivalent

to an additional 1,400 m

3

of water per year [123]. Global

water consumption at the end of the 20

th

century becomes

more than doubled since World War II. It is expected this

figure will rise another 25% by 2030 [145]. A recent study

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192

led by McKinsey estimates that by 2030 global water

demand will be 40%. This shortfall will hit the southwest

United States, Australia, Africa, and East and Southeast

Asia. The water risks in Asia are due to its vast population

and economic growth [75]. Water demand is increasing in

the power and energy sectors for cooling, biofuels

production and for shale gas and oil extraction. The US

Energy Information Administration (EIA) predicts that by

2035 that demand will be double or even triples, depending

on global oil prices [29].

6.5.3. Worldwide Water Use

The daily drinking water requirement per person is 2–4

liters, but it takes 2,000 to 5,000 liters of water to produce

one person’s daily food [37]. Domestic use of water is 11%

in high-income countries and 8% in low- and middle-

income countries. Industrial use of water increases with

country income, going from 10% for low- and middle-

income countries to 59% for high-income countries. Water

use in agricultural is 30% in high-income countries and

82% in low- and middle- income countries. But in many

developing nations, irrigation accounts for over 90% of

water withdrawn from available sources for use [130].

Bottled water sales worldwide have increased rapidly

with global consumption now at more than 1,000 billion

gallons a year. Bottled water can cost as much as 10,000

times more than tap water. The USA is the biggest

consumer of bottled water. Peoples of the USA are

consuming water from disposable plastic bottles at a rate of

more than 10 billion gallons each year which costs $11

billion. China is the 2

nd

largest consumer of bottled water

and it uses 7.7 billion gallons (12.5% of global use),

Mexico (population is one-third of the USA) is the 3

rd

largest consumer and it uses 7.5 billion gallons (12.3% of

global use) annually. Brazil uses 4.5 billion gallons and

Indonesia uses 3.8 billion gallons of bottled water annually

[106].

6.5.4 Increase of Wastewater

Urban areas are both consumers and producers of large

amounts of wastewater. Wastewater is created in various

ways, such as, dissolved contents of fertilizers, chemical

runoff, human waste, livestock manure and nutrients [19].

The cultivation of nitrogen fixing crops and the

manufacture of fertilizer convert about 120 million tons of

N

2

from the atmosphere per year into reactive N

2

containing compounds. Every year about 20 million tons of

P is used as fertilizer [103].

Wastewater may contain a range of pathogens including

bacteria, parasites, viruses and toxic chemicals such as

heavy metals and organic chemicals from agriculture,

industry and domestic sources [28].

Lack of wastewater management has a direct impact on

the biological diversity of aquatic ecosystems, disrupting

the fundamental integrity of our life support systems. In

many developing countries more than 70% of industrial

wastes are dumped untreated into waters where they pollute

the usable water supply [147].

6.6 Land Use Change

Land is one of the most important natural resources.

Land use change affects on global environmental change

and landscape ascription [101]. Land is mainly used for

residential, commercial and agricultural purposes. Land can

also used for recreation, wood production and biodiversity

preservation. The conversion of land may impact soil,

water and atmosphere which are global environmental

issues. Due to the large-scale deforestation and subsequent

transformation of agricultural land in tropical areas affects

on biodiversity, soil degradation and the material resources

to support human needs. Changes in land use may impact

on the climate change [66, 67, 79].

6.7 Atmospheric Aerosol Loading

Airborne particulate matter or aerosols are found as

organic or inorganic compositions and consist of solid

and/or liquid particles of sizes in the range 0.01–100 μm

suspended in air, which occur through natural processes

such as, volcanic eruptions, windblown dust, sea spray, etc.

(greater than 10 μm in diameter), or through anthropogenic

sources like industrial emissions, automobile exhausts, etc.

(less than 10 μm in diameter) [99].

Ambient aerosol particles are responsible for adverse

health effects, creation of haze pollution both in urban and

in the rural area, visibility reduction on human and

influence on climate. On the other hand carbonaceous

aerosols can block solar radiation and scatter visible light

and play an important role in the earth’s radiative balance

and in climate [56]. They are scattered solar radiation and

can act as cloud condensation and ice nuclei [111]. The

main component of carbonaceous aerosol is organic carbon

(OC), which is volatile while the rest is composed of black

carbon (BC). Carbonaceous aerosol is produced during

incomplete combustion of fossil fuels, biofuels, and

biomass burning emissions [55].

Aerosol sources are classified into two types as follows

[12]:

 Primary aerosols (>1 μm in diameter) are those

that are emitted into the atmosphere directly as

condensed solids or liquids. For example, sea

salt, mineral dust, desert dust, re-entrained road

dust and soot particles are clearly primary

particles.

 Secondary aerosols (between 0.1 and 1 μm in

diameter) are formed within the atmosphere from

gaseous precursors. For example, organic

particles from the oxidation of volatile organic

compounds (VOC) and sulphates from the

oxidation of SO

2

or other sulphur containing

gases are secondary particles.

Aerosols vary in shape, chemical composition and

optical properties. For example, 0.01 to 5 μm solid particles

are paint pigments, tobacco smoke, dust, sea-salt particles;

5 to 100 μm solid particles are cement dust, wind-blown

soil dust, foundry dust, pulverized coal, milled flower; 5 to

10,000 μm liquid particles are fog, smog, mist, raindrops;

0.001 to 0.01 μm biological origin particles are viruses,

bacteria, pollen, spores and 0.001 to 100 μm chemical

formation atmospheric SO

2

and metal oxides form when

fuels that contain metals are burned [121].

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193

As of 2009, the PB for ‘atmospheric aerosol loading’

had not yet been quantified. Although there are many

assessments and indicators available for particulate air

pollution, such as PM

2.5

(due to the negative influence on

human health), there is not enough scientific knowledge to

quantify the impact at the global scale [102].

Atmospheric aerosols influence climate directly through

scattering and absorbing radiation, and indirectly by acting

as condensation nuclei for clouds [93]. Aerosols may have

weakened the rate of the global warming by some 30%,

possibly up to 50–80% [6].

Aerosols have some effects on environment and human

health as well as the life of plants or animals. According to

World Health Organization (WHO), ozone, particulate,

matter, heavy metals and some hydrocarbons present the

priority pollutants in the troposphere. The results of the

long-term studies confirm that the adverse health effects are

mainly due to particulate matter, especially small particles-

10

[100]. Lifetime of fine

particles (diameter < 2.5

2.5

is from days to

weeks, travel distance ranges from 100 s to >1,000 s km.

Lifetime of coarse particles (diameter <10

10

is

minutes to hours, and their travel distance varies from <1

km to 10 km [121].

Aerosols have deleterious health effects as they often

contain toxins and/or carcinogens that contribute to

cardiopulmonary diseases and mortality [96].

6.8 Ocean Acidification

The basic chemistry of ocean acidification was first

described in the early 1970s, based on early models of CO

2

exchange at the air-sea interface and the thermodynamics

of the carbon system in seawater. Ocean acidification is

closely linked with climate change [10,35,143]. The first

symposium on “The Ocean in a High-CO

2

World” in 2004

proved to be a landmark event in ocean acidification and

also second symposium held in 2008 [16, 91].

When anthropocentric CO

2

increases in the atmosphere

and dissolves in seawater and then creates carbonic acid

(H

2

CO

3

), releases hydrogen ions (H

+

), which increases

acidity. These H

+

increase ocean acidity and reduce calcium

carbonate ion (CO

3

2–

) saturation. It is estimated that the

surface waters of the oceans have taken up about 25% of

the carbon generated by anthropogenic activities since 1800

and altering seawater chemistry. CO

2

is generally less

soluble in warm water than in cold water. As a result,

marine waters near the poles have a much greater capacity

for dissolving CO

2

than do ocean waters in the tropics [11].

Shipping emissions annually release about 9.5 million

tons of sulphur (S) and 16.2 million tons of nitric oxides

(NO). When these dissolved in seawater converted into the

strong sulphuric (H

2

SO

4

) and nitric acids (HNO

3

)

respectively [51]. Ocean acidification effects on food webs,

fisheries (shellfish), marine ecosystems (corals, coralline

algae, mollusks and some plankton), coastal erosion and

tourism [91].

The upper layers of the ocean are now 0.7°C warmer

due to global warming than they were 100 years ago [72].

Since the Industrial Revolution (1750) atmospheric CO

2

has increased. The oceans of the world are absorbing CO

2

at a faster rate than at any time in the past 800,000 years

[86]. Present total human CO

2

emissions are more than 10

billion tons of carbon annually. Of this amount, 8.7±0.5

billion tons originates from fossil fuel combustion and

cement production and another 1.2±0.7 billion tons from

deforestation [70]. The cumulative human CO

2

emissions

over the industrial era now amount to close to 560 billion

tons [27]. Oceanic pH has decreased by 0.1 units, increases

physiological hypercapnia, which has removed 30–40

μmol/kg carbonate ions (CO

3

2–

) from ocean bodies like the

coral sea that normally contain between 250–300 μmol/kg.

Consequently, at present the ocean has become more acidic

(increased by 30%) by changing the ocean’s chemistry and

coral reefs are in threatened position [53]. It is estimated

that surface ocean pH is projected to decrease by 0.4± 0.1

pH units by 2100 relative to pre-industrial conditions [76].

If this situation happens then hundreds of thousands to

millions of years will be needed for coral reefs to be re-

established, based on past records of natural coral reef

extinction events [132].

Increasing concentrations of atmospheric CO

2

is

entering the ocean in ever increasing amounts. CO

2

combines with water to produce carbonic acid

(CO

2

+H

2

O→H

2

CO

3

), which subsequently converts

carbonate ions (H

2

CO

3

→2H

+

+CO

3

2–

) into bicarbonate ions

(2H

+

+CO

3

2–

→H

+

+HCO

3

–

). Some marine organisms use

bicarbonate to form the compound calcium carbonate

(2HCO

3

–

+ Ca

2

+

→CaCO

3

+ CO

2

+ H

2

O). CaCO

3

builds

skeletons as in coral reefs, or protective shells as in snails.

Hence, the decreases in CO

3

2–

, decreases the saturation

state of CaCO

3

[52].

Ocean warming is implicated in mass mortality,

increased disease, hypoxia, coral bleaching, species

invasions, phonological shifts in planktonic food web

dynamics, physiological limitation in oxygen delivery and

increased costs of metabolism [54,95]. Ocean acidification

is a major threat to calcifying marine invertebrates because

it decreases the availability of the CO

3

2–

required for

skeletogenesis, and it exerts a direct pH effect [78].

Hypercapnia has a pervasive narcotic effect suppressing

metabolism [15].

6.9 Chemical Pollution

Hundreds of thousands of different man-made and

natural chemicals are harmful for ecosystem or human

health. The concepts of PBs for chemical pollution are

needed for developing appropriate evaluation strategies to

reduce global chemical risks and the future development of

sustainable chemical technologies [103].

Primary types of chemical pollution are radioactive

compounds, heavy metals (steel, copper, gold etc.), and a

wide range of organic compounds of human origin.

Chemical pollution affects other planetary boundaries, such

as, biodiversity boundary by reducing the abundance of

species and climate change releasing CO

2

by the burning

petroleum when chemicals are produced [102].

Hundreds of tons of hazardous waste are released to the

air, water, and land by industry every hour of every day and

the chemical industry is the biggest source of such waste

[71].

During 1994–2008, Nigeria was the worst for gas

flaring efficiency among the top eight flaring countries. At

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194

present Nigeria is the second largest gas flaring volume

among the top 20 individual countries. Nigeria and Russia

together account for 40% of global gas flaring and the top

twenty countries account for 85% [31].

It is estimated that there are 80,000 to 100,000

chemicals on the global market [18, 131]. Of the 80,000

chemicals in commerce, 1,000 are known to be neurotoxic

in experiments, 200 are known to be neurotoxic in humans,

and 5 (methyl mercury, arsenic, lead, polychlorinated

biphenyls (PCBs), toluene) are known to be toxic to human

neurodevelopment [102]. According to the California

Policy Research Center, about 2,000 potentially hazardous

chemicals are introduced into commercial use each year.

Global chemical production is expected to double every 25

years, even as global population increases at a much slower

rate. Every day the chemists are inventing new chemicals

and some of them are harmful for human life [82,146].

Twelve most dangerous Persistent Organic Pollutants

(POPs) are collectively referred to as the dirty dozen. The

first 9 are agricultural and landscape chemicals (pesticides)

and last 3 are industrial chemicals. POPs are extremely

toxic chemicals with acute and chronic effects on pests,

wildlife, and humans contact. Their uses, half-life in soil

(years) and effects on human health are given as follows

[127]:

1. Aldrin: Uses as insecticide, half-life in soil is yet

unknown and adverse health effects on human

body are the development of carcinogenic,

malaise, dizziness and nausea.

2. Chlordane: Uses as insect and termite control,

half-life in soil is one year and adverse health

effect on human body is carcinogenic creation.

3. Dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane (DDT): Uses

as insecticide, half-life in soil is 10–12 years, and

adverse health effects on human body are the

development of cancer of liver and immune

system suppression.

4. Dieldrin: Uses as insecticide, half-life in soil is 5

years and adverse health effects on human body

are liver and biliary cancer formation.

5. Endrin: Uses as insecticide and rodenticide, half-

life in soil is up to 12 years and adverse health

effect on human body is the development of

cancers.

6. Heptachlor: Uses as insect and termite control,

half-life in soil is up to 2 years and adverse health

effects on human body are the formation of

cancers, mutations, stillbirths, birth defects and

liver disease.

7. Hexachloro-benzene (HCB): Uses as fungicide,

half-life in soil is 2.7–22.9 years and adverse

health effects on human body are the

development of cancers, mutations, birth defects,

fetal and embryo toxicity, nervous disorder and

liver disease.

8. Mirextermiticide: Uses as insecticide, half-life in

soil is up to 10 years, and adverse health effects

on human body are the creation of acute toxicity

and possible cancers.

9. Toxaphane: Uses as insecticide, half-life in soil is

3 months to one year and adverse health effects

on human body are the development of

carcinogenic, chromosome aberrations, liver and

kidney problems.

10. Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs): Uses as

industry manufacture, co-planar, half-life in soil

is 10 days to 1.5 year and adverse health effects

on human body are cancers mutations, births

defects, fetal and embryo toxicity, neurological

disorder and liver damage formation.

11. Dioxins: Uses to produce by-product, half-life in

soil is 10–12 years and adverse health effects on

human body are the development of peripheral

neuropathies, fatigue, depression, liver disease

and embryo toxicity.

12. Furans: Uses to produce by-product, half-life in

soil is 10–12 years and adverse health effects on

human body are the development of peripheral

neuropathies, embryo toxicity and liver problems.

Pulp and paper industry is considered as one of the

most polluter industry in the world. The wastewaters

generated from production processes of this industry

include high concentration of chemicals such as sodium

hydroxide (NaOH), sodium carbonate (Na

2

CO

3

), sodium

sulfide (Na

2

S), bisulfites, elemental chlorine or chlorine

dioxide (Cl

2

O), calcium oxide (CaO), hydrochloric acid

(HCl), etc. [120].

According to the Environmental Protection Agency

(EPA), the average adult breathes 3,000 gallons of air per

day. Inhaling certain air pollutants can worsen conditions

such as asthma, and studies estimate that thousands of

people die prematurely each year due to air pollution [115].

Sulphur dioxide (SO

2

) is a poisonous gas that released by

volcanoes and in various industrial processes (by roasting

metal sulphide ores). It has a variety of industrial

applications, from refining raw materials for preserving

food. The poisonous gas SO

2

is considered as a local

pollution problem worldwide. It is emitted in the

atmosphere from both anthropogenic and natural sources. It

is estimated that anthropogenic sources account for more

than 70% of SO

2

global emissions, half of which are from

fossil-fuel combustion [139]. It is considered as severe

health effect ingredient, both in short-term and long-term

[83].

The health effects caused by a short-term (a few

minutes) exposures to SO

2

are as follows [5]:

(a) difficulty in breathing, (b) coughing, (c) irritation of the

nose, throat, lungs, (d) fluid in lungs, (e) shortness of breath

and (f) forms sulphuric acid in lungs.

The health effects caused by long-term exposure to SO

2

are as follows [5]:

(a) temporary loss of smell, (b) headache, (c) nausea, (d)

dizziness, (e) irritation of lungs, (f) phlegm, (g) coughing,

(h) shortness of breath, (i) bronchitis and (j) reduced

fertility.

At present China becomes the highest SO

2

emitter in

the world due to its reliance on coal for energy generation.

When SO

2

combines with moisture in the atmosphere, it

can form sulphuric acid (H

2

SO

4

), which is the main

component of acid rain. Acid rain destroys various living

organisms (harmful for humans, animals and vegetation)

Journal of Environmental Treatment Techniques 2015, Volume 3, Issue 4, Pages: 184-200

195

and structures (paints, buildings, infrastructure and cultural

resources) [83]. The World Health Organization (WHO)

estimated that acid rain seriously affects 30% of China’s

total land area [140].

Green chemistry and engineering (GCE) involves

designing and using chemical products and processes with

the aim of eliminating or reducing their negative impact on

human health and the environment [82].

On 10 September 2010, California’s Department of

Toxic Substances Control (DTSC) submitted its Green

Chemistry Proposed Regulation for Safer Consumer

Products to the state’s Office of Administrative Law,

triggering a 45-day public comment period and formal

rulemaking process, which flesh out a process for

identifying and prioritizing chemicals in consumer products

that may be subject to additional restrictions [25].

7 Progress in Environment Protection

The Thames in London, have been cleaned up and the

air quality in major cities, such as Los Angeles, is better.

Synthetic pesticides once sprayed on our crops, such as

DDT, have been banned in most developed countries, and

lead has been removed from petroleum-based fuels.

Even though the major 12 Persistent Organic Pollutants

(POPs) have now been banned or restricted in most

industrialized countries, but these chemicals continue to be

produced and exported to Third World countries where

regulations are negligent [1]. The USA, China and other

industrialized countries agreed to reduce GHG emissions.

Six dimensions of transformation for sustainability are

as follows [105]:

i. Global energy transformation (>80% reduction in

CO

2

emissions by 2050).

ii. Food security transformation (+70% by 2050;

sustainable intensification).

iii. Urban sustainability transformation.

iv. The population transition (aim for a 9 billion

world or below).

v. The biodiversity management transformation

(protect, restore, manage; sustain critical biomes).

vi. Private and public governance transformation

(strengthen global governance).

8 Conclusions

In this study we have discussed the aspects of nine

planetary boundaries. Beyond of these boundaries

anthropogenic change will put the earth system outside a

safe operating space for humanity. Four boundaries;

climate change, loss of biosphere integrity, land-system

change and altered biogeochemical cycles have already

been passed due to human activities. Scientists estimated

that within a very short time world will face the difficulties

of shortage of freshwater, change in land use, ocean

acidification and interference with the global phosphorous

cycle. In 2014 the population of the world became 7.29

billion and world population is growing continuously. For

this vast population the world faces various problems and

the 21

st

century becomes a challenge for the survival of the

mankind. At the same time industrial and anthropogenic

activities have increased air pollution which affect on

human health. It is the critical period that all the nations

should take attempts to make the earth safe shelter for all

living creatures.

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