Aspects of Environmental Pollutants on Male Fertility and Sperm Parameters

Journal of Environmental Treatment Techniques

2020, Volume 8, Issue 1, Pages: 299-309

1.5% each year in the sperm count in American males (5, 6).

Mechanisms of action of air pollutants on

However, there has been an increase in the infertility rate in

Iran for the last 20 years. Studies show that in one-fourth

Iranian couples are infertile; thus, by the end of their

reproductive age three-fourth will be infertile. Furthermore,

the infertility and the primary infertility rate have been

increased by 20% and two-fold, respectively, for the last two

decades (7). On the other hand, this idea that important

factors might lead to decreasing semen in quality in some

areas not all of them can be supported by geographical

variations effects on semen quality (8, 9) as well as other

changes which are in men reproductive functions(4,5).

Lifestyle and environmental factors contribute toward these

changes and constant exposure to environmental endocrine-

disrupting chemicals has been provided (6). According to the

reports, the malfunction of male reproductive system may be

a well sensitive marker for environmental danger (4). Either

gonadal endocrine disruption or direct damage to the

spermatogenesis may cause the changes of male

reproductive system (6). Investigating the unclear results

obtained from the effect lead (Pb) and cadmium (Cd)

elements on some variables, including male infertility,

sperm parameters and hormone concentration has been

carried out by epidemiological studies. (Give reference).

Now, one of the most vital risk factors of metropolises is

air pollution and it has an effect on all people, who live in

urban areas. Owing to the importance of air pollution and

effects, many studies have done to investigate adverse

effects of it on the human health (10). Based on perinatal

outcomes, there has been a correlation between air pollution

and some adverse perinatal events, including reduced

gestational period (11), preterm delivery (12–14) and low

birth weight (15). However, the effect of air pollution on the

fertility has not been clear yet, it has been interested due to

multiple adverse effects, which were reported on human

health (1). The impacts of air pollution on some items,

including in vitro fertilization (IVF) success rates (16),

mammalian fertility and semen quality (17–20) have been

highlighted by some reports (21, 22). Clinical practice is

tended to focus on the impacts of various air pollutants on

fertility and knowing if subfertile populations are more

sensitive toward these detrimental impacts. This review aims

to investigate the effect of air pollution on fertility in humans

based on available signs.

fertility

There have been 4 mechanisms for air pollutants effects

on fertility, as follows: i) hormonal changes caused as a

result of an endocrine disruptor action, ii) induction of

oxidative stress, iii) cell DNA change and iv) epigenetic

modifications. Air pollutants can play a key role as

endocrine disruptors through activation of the aryl

hydrocarbon receptor (AhR), estrogen or androgen receptors

(

24). One of the common cellular mechanism caused air

pollutants and used adverse effects is acting directly as pro-

oxidants of lipids and proteins or as free radicals’ generators,

developing the inflammatory responses induction and

oxidative stress (25). The DNA molecule and epigenetic

changes, including DNA methylation and histone

modifications transmitted to future generations, can be

altered and induced, respectively by some pollutants.

.1 Action as endocrine disruptors

All air pollutants especially the PAHs and heavy metals like

Cu, Pb, Znin PM, notablyfrom diesel exhaust (26, 27), are

discussed in the article as endocrine disruptors with either

estrogenic, antiestrogenicor anti-androgenic activity (28–

33).

.2 Induction of reactive oxygen species (ROS)

The most air pollutants like NO or O can generate ROS;

2 3

in addition, ROS is produced by particulate matters (PM)

using the heavy metals and the PAHs. They are able to

change by CYP450 dihydro-dehydrogenase producing

quinone redox, catalyzing electron transfer reactions and

hence stimulating ROS production (34–37).

.3 Cell DNA alteration

Inducing alterations in the cell DNA is the third

mechanism discussedin the paper in orderto explain the

pathophysiologic mechanisms, which are in fertility

alteration ledby air pollution. As discussed above, these

DNA alterations could be relatedto oxidative stress, which is

induced. Based on studies carried out on taxi drivers, DNA

can be altered by the inflammation processes because of

ROS (38). Besides, increasing annual some factors,

including exposure to NO , inhalable particulate matter and

fine particulate matter (PM-2·5) cause telomere length to

increase (39). After forming of DNA adducts, they might

occur. Since some of molecules can bind to a DNA base

within covalent bonding, then change gene expression.

Moreover, mutation incidence can lead to alternating the cell

DNA and increasing apoptosis risk. Some of air pollutants

are able to form DNA adducts in germ cells and the PAHs,

which are in PM (40, 41, 42).

Methods of Searching

This study is a review investigating the effect of

environmental air pollutants on reproductive health or

fertility. The PubMed database is our source helping us to

conduct the search in April 2019. In our study, there has been

a combination of descriptors and terms correlated to air

pollution and fertility so that every contaminant or substance

such as gases, particulate matters, or volatile organic

compounds in the air, which have an interference with

human health or produce other harmful environmental

effects, was considered as an air pollution (23). The entire

search was conducted using the Advanced Search Builder

and the keywords were found in ‘Title OR Abstract’.

Wetried to filter the hits by selecting articles, which are

written in English.

Epigenetic modifications

Epigenetic modifications, which are noticeable changes

in DNA methylation, are able to cause abnormal gene

expression. These abnormalities have roles in impact of air

pollution upon respiratory failure (43, 44) and

carcinogenesis (45). According to studies carried out by

Ding et al, both hypomethylation and hypermethylation

were shown in rats exposed to PM-10, PM-2.5and NO (46)

and mitochondrial (mt) DNA canbe affected bythese

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2020, Volume 8, Issue 1, Pages: 299-309

changes (47). It was shown by Byun et al. blood mtDNA

methylation, which is in the D-loop promoter, was

accompanied with PM-2.5 levels (48).It was reported that

epigenetic alterations are involved in the spermatogenesis

failure (49). Based on findings of Stouder et al. (50),

administration of alcohol in pregnant mice led to inducing

hypomethylation of the H19 imprinted gene, in addition

tothe decreased spermatogenesis. Furthermore, it is proven

by Park et al., (51) that exposure to butylparaben (BP) for a

long time can make DNA hypermethylation from the mitotic

ina post-meiotic stage in tests for adult rats. Altering

microRNA (miRNA) can occur by air pollutants. According

to study done by Tsamou et al, the placental expression of

miR-146a, miR-21 and miR-222, which are three miRNAs

affected by air pollution exposure in leucocyte blood cells

and also expressed in the placenta, was inversely

accompanied with PM-2.5 exposure throughout the 2nd

trimester of pregnancy (52). There are some details about

environmental pollutants which are effective on male

fertility as follows:

morphology and sperm number and a male fertility

impairment, epigenetic modification of sperm gene function

can have an effect on the reproductive outcome. It is

important to reprogram epigenome and-imprinted loci

throughout gametogenes is and peri-implantation stagesin

order to maintain a suitable inheritance pattern, especially at

imprinted loci (61). Based on data obtained from literatures

such as animal and human studies, there has been an

increasing concern about risk of various diseases in the

offspring made using assisted reproductive technologies (62;

63). Most of abnormal conditions are correlated to

epigenetic alterations, which lead into adversely affecting

embryonic development and imprinting disorders, based on

some strong evidence. To identify reasons of infertility and

describe therapeutic and preventive protocols, clinicians

need to have better information about air contaminants

effects on the molecular mechanisms, which lead to male

infertility (64).

5.2 Environmental pollutants and changes in sperm

parameters

Air pollution as a common factor has an effect on

reproductive functions in all countries for both men and

women especially for sperm parameters in men. According

the results obtained from meta-analysis that air pollution,

however, decreases sperm motility, it does not affect the

others parameters of spermogram. Some of stages in

spermatogenesis and testicular size in mice were impaired

and decreased, respectively, by post-natal and prenatal

exposures to ambient air pollution (65). However, air

pollution does not cause any changes in sperm counts in

many studies; some abnormalities in DNA, sperm motility

and morphology have been seen (66-69) and there is a

negative correlation between air pollution and sperm counts

specially in some population (70).

A decrease in sperm counts can occur due to exposure to

environmental pollution in the world (71–77). In a reported

done recently, it was shown that there is progressive

decrease in sperm production throughout a period due to

increasing air pollution in Greece (78). Although a

relationship between either exposure to increasing air

pollution or residence district and declined sperm

production, including sperm per sample and concentration

has not been found in the Czech Republic (66).

However, there was poorer morphology (both years) and

lower sperm motility from1994 samples for men sampled at

the winter after increasing pollution in comparison with

those of sampled after decreasing air pollution (Teplice in

the fall and Prachatice the late winter or fall). Thus, based on

the evidence, it is likely to have a relation between

increasing air pollution and decreasing sperm quality. In

addition, fertility data are not, however, available for this

group of young men, there is a correlation between normal

morphology and low values for sperm motility with

infertility (79–82). In study carried out by Selevan et al (66),

it was found that there is highly noticeable relation between

exposure to high (1993) air pollution, periods of medium

Effects of environmental pollutants on male

fertility

5.1 Environmental pollutants and epigenetic changes in

male germ cells

Reliable evidence for damage to spermiogenes, which is

caused by ambient air pollution exposure notable for

genotoxic impacts and epigenetic alterations is provided by

experimental and clinical studies. It is needed to have more

investigations on the clinical relevance of air pollution-

inducedi mpactsin male germ cells. Indeed, one of the

clinical challenges has been the diagnosis of

environmentally induced DNA damage or male infertility.

The importance of the genotoxic impact on human

spermatozoa is or both the offspring’s health and the

reproductive performance of the men, who were exposed.

There is a negative correlation between the semen quality

and percentage of DNA-fragmented spermatozoa in an

ejaculation (53; 54; 55). Although fragmented DNA with a

spermatozoon is able to fertilize similarly an oocyte (56).

Some studies have been carried out to show that the embryo

and oocyte keep the ability to make a repair to DNA damage

present in the paternal genome (57).Although there has been

a question if all damage can be repaired. For example,

double-stranded DNA breaks seem less repairable in

comparison with single-stranded breaks and; therefore, they

have a stronger effect on embryo development (58).

Indeed, the oocyte is able to repair DNA, which has

damage of sperm, for a certain level that damage caused in

this level will lead to fragmenting low rate embryonic

development and embryos. In addition, it was shown by

Carrell et al, (59) that measurement of DNA fragmentation

in men, with partners had pregnancy losses repeatedly, had

higher levels. Therefore, some events, including impaired

embryo morphology of blastocysts, fertilization failure,

repeated spontaneous abortions or embryo implantation

failure might happen.

(

1994) and poor sperm morphology. Increasing air pollution

According to evidence, epigenetic changes cause

toxicity mediated from some environmental pollutants (60),

thus, studies should be accurately carried out to investigate

probable direct interactions between epigenetics alterations,

air contaminants, and sperm abnormalities. By alterations in

in winter 1993 was accompanied with increasing sperm

percent and abnormal chromatin structure (COMPαt). In

clinical studies, high COMPαt (> 30) has been accompanied

with spontaneous abortion and infertility (83); however, this

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2020, Volume 8, Issue 1, Pages: 299-309

measure has been used recently for epidemiology studies. In

another study, there was a relation between increasing

COMPαt and exposure to cigarette smoke such as air

pollution containing genotoxic PAHs and elevated COMPαt

DNA fragmentation, which can be an important reason for

undiagnosed/unexplained infertility, sperm DNA integrity

has been considered as a better suggestion to predict male

fertility better in comparison with common semen analysis.

In a study carried out by Rubes et al. (94) in 2005, it was

revealed that air pollution was correlated with increasing

damage of DNA in human sperm without any other changes

associated with semen quality such as motility and sperm

concentration. These results proved preceding evidence of

sperm morphological abnormalities (95, 66) in men, who

live in the Teplice District in Northern Bohemia (Czech

Republic) an place in which high-levelair pollution has been

annually registered (96; 97). Radwan et al. (98) observed a

statistically noticeable relation between exposure to all

examined air pollutants and abnormalities in sperm

morphology using analyzing infertile men based on normal

semen concentrations. It is probable that sperm DNA

fragmentation was the most common reason of paternal

DNA noticeably transmission to progeny and found in a high

percentage of spermatozoa from infertile men, subfertile and

also from subjects, which were exposed to toxicants (99).

In many studies, there has been a potential relation

between fertility status and sperm DNA fragmentation (100-

102). Rubes et al. (103,104) investigating seasonal

differences in policemen worked in the center of Prague and

exposed, which was verified by personal monitoring and

ambient), revealed that there is notably higher DNA

fragmentation in winter, that has high exposure compared to

spring, that has low exposure for total non-smokers.

Furthermore, it was seen a noticeable correlation between

two standard indexes of DNA fragmentation, including Hdfi

and detDFI with% of sperm with only high DNA damage

and detectable DNA fragmentation Index, respectively, and

specific genetic modification on DNA repair genes. A

correlation was between immature sperm and

polymorphisms in GSTM1 gene codifying for one of the

enzymes, which generally defend from many toxicants, and

supported the genetic polymorphisms role as potential

modifiers of associations between modifications in sperm

quality and air pollution exposure (103,104). On the other

hand, the idea for special factors, which present in some

areas not all of them, might be in charge of declining semen

quality, is maintained by the impact of geographical

variables in the quality of semen and other alterations in men

reproductive function (105-107).

(

84). Thus, it can be deducted that smoking was kept in the

COMPαt model. Regarding this, other measurement of

genetic integrity called sperm aneuploidy noticeably

increased in a subset of the same men exposed to high air

pollution, including nonsmokers from the Teplice winter

1993 group in comparison with those exposed to low air

pollution, including nonsmokers from the Teplice summer

1993 group, who were from Czech (84).

5.3 Environmental pollutants and changes in sperm DNA

integrity and telomeres

Nowadays, it is believed, based on the available

evidence, that sperm DNA integrity maybe a better factor to

predict male fertility potentiality in comparison with

common semen parameters (85). However, the most routine

method used in a clinical setting called DNA fragmentation

might not to be able to give complete information about

DNA damages everityand the molecular mechanisms (85).

Thus, it is needed urgently for male germ line cells to have

more sensitive biomarkers of DNA integrity. Recently, there

have been many studies about the effect of sperm telomeres

in male infertility and reproduction (86). According to

results obtained from studies, sperm telomere length could

be as an extra sperm quality parameter which might add

information regarding DNA damage and make a new way in

evaluating infertile males (87, 88).It was shown, by a study

conducted recently, that a probable relation has been

between sperm telomere length and high environmental

pressure, in which polluted areas (89).

Based on a study carried out recently, environmental

exposure with high level might lead to increasing semen

telomere length (TL) in young normospermic men, who

have important effects and roles on sperm as a sensitive

sentinel biomarker of environmental impactsthat was

obtained for the first time (90). In addition, it has been shown

tha tembryo quality development sperm and sperm telomere

length (STL) have been correlated and TL is higher in

normozoospermic than oligozoospermic men (91). The

pollutants effect on semen telomere length has been

evaluated in a just one study owing to a few types of PAHs;

there was a shortening in semen TL ledby an impairment in

telomerase (89) and it is shown that there has been a

noticeable increase in telomere length in sperm for young

men who live in places with high environmental pollutants

exposure than others. These results reveal that one of the

sensitive sentinel biomarkers of environmental exposure is

semen. To do morestudies in majorpopulations, it is

necessary to know the importance of telomere lengthening

in places with high environmental situations.

5.5 Environmental pollutants and Epigenetic changes and

male infertility

Heritable alterations in gene expression and in

phenotype without changes in the DNA sequence are defined

based on Epigenetics containing chemical changes to histone

proteins related to DNA (histone modifications), the

cytosine residues of DNA (DNA methylation) in addition to

posttranscriptional regulation by noncoding microRNAs.

Despite of the similarity of DNA sequence between humans,

there has been a large epigenetic difference (108). Some

diseases might be caused bychanges of epigenetic profile

responding to environmental stimuli, and epigenetic

modifications triggered by environmental exposure (109-

111). There has not carried out any studies yet to investigate

the direct impact of environmental toxicant exposure on

male fertility abnormality and epigenetic stat; however, there

.4 Environmental pollutants and sperm DNA damage

Fertility can be affected by chromosomal aberrations,

either structural or numerical. The chromosomal aberration

sfrequency is approximately 0.6 %in the total population

(

92), while increaseup2%–14% in infertile males (93).There

has been an increase in chromosomal aberrations due to

increasing severity of infertility. In conclusion, as men, who

have normal semen parameters, might have high-degree

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2020, Volume 8, Issue 1, Pages: 299-309

issome animal evidence making a suggestion that epigenome

is altered by environment-induced abnormality in sperm

parameters (112,113). Epigenetics mechanisms ultimately

regulating the activity of gene and expression throughout

differentiation and development are basic mechanisms for

normal spermatogenesis and gonadal development (114-

in Leydig cells on the testicular level, (126); Watanabehas

reported a Sertoli cells reduction in rats, which were exposed

todiesel exhaust (127). It was shown by Jeng and Yuhaveon

the hormonal level that prolonged exposure to PAHs leads

to decreasing and increasing in blood testosterone levels and

LH levels, respectively, at the end of the exposure time (46).

It was found byInyang et al. that there is a statistically

noticeable decrease and increase in levels of blood

testosterone and LH levels, respectively, in rats, which were

exposed toa type of PAH: benzo (a) pyrene (134). According

to study carried out on rates by Tsukue et al., hormonal

alterationsin the group, which were exposed to diesel

exhaust with a statistically noticeable increase in levels of

blood testosterone and LH, were correlated with

modifications in the weight of the accessory sex glands such

as seminal vesicles and prostate (135). It was reported by

Watanabe and Oonuki that there was a statistically

noticeable increase in testosterone and estrogens levels and

a noticeable decrease in the levels of FSH and LH in a group

of rats, which were exposed to diesel exhaust. Moreover, an

increase in degenerative cells was observed between

spermatid and the spermatocytestages (130).

116). It has been clear that special errors, which are in the

procedure of epigenetic control, mightoccur throughout

every stage of spermatogenesis, negatively, having an effect

on embryonic development and male fertility and (117).

Inrecent meta-analysis, alterations in miRNA profile

caused sensitive indicators made from impacts of chronic

and acute environmental exposure (118). There has not been

published any special studies yet; however, the available

data strongly makes a suggestion that air pollutants could

have an impact on the miRNA signature, which are needed

for normal spermatogenesis. miRNAs have an important

role in meiosis, mitosis and spermatogenesis (119-121). In

order to participate in every step control of male germ cell

differentiation, throughout spermatogenesis, the miRNAs

are stated in a cell-specific manner. The significance of

miRNA paths for normal spermatogenesis has been revealed

bymodels of genetically modified mouse, and functional

studies have been conducted in order to dissect the specific

miRNAs roles in different cell type (122). Based on clinical

studies, spermatozoa from patients with seminal changes

shows a differential miRNA profile (123,124). Therefore, on

the one hand, there is a hard evidence of miRNA important

role in spermatogenesis contributing to the mechanisms,

which are involved in human fertility; on the other hand, the

profile of miRNA expression has been offered as a new non-

invasive, diagnostic biomarker of male fertility. Study

conducted by Wang et al. (125), investigated samples of

pooled semen acquired from infertile men and the results in

comparison with normal fertile individuals as control

groups. It was revealed that changes in miRNA profiles in

both asthenozoospermia and azoospermia. The seven

miRNAs level was noticeably lower and higher in

azoospermia and asthenozoospermia, respectively, in

comparison with control. Therefore, it was proposed by the

authors that seven miRNAs may confirm molecular

diagnostic value for infertility in males.

5.7 Impact of Environmental pollutants on the male

gamete in humans

In the past few decades, there was a decrease in the

sperm quality in industrialized countries (136, 137). The

exposure to toxic materials in ambient and the environment

air pollution can be a probable cause for these changes (138–

140). Indeed, it has been revealed that professions, which

were exposed to exhaust like toll collectors and worked on

expressways, more regularly generate sperm abnormalities

(141, 142).However, this paper is rich in this subject, there

have not been enough studies on it since they do not

investigate the same pollutants and their methods are

different based on populations studied during exposure time.

Besides, results obtained are not sometimes in agreement.

Although many studies reveal modifications, after

exposure to air pollution, in parameters of sperm, giving

evidence for decreasing the quality of sperm. These changes

have a decrease in either sperm mobility (138, 140–146), or

in the movement quality (138, 140). In addition, a decrease

in the percentage of normal shapes, especially head

morphology, along with changed sperm morphology is

regularly mentioned (66, 140, 142,144–150, 151). Results

obtained for sperm counts are not in agreement with a few

studies reporting a noticeable decline in the concentration of

sperm in semen after exposure to specific forms of air

pollution (140, 142, 144, 149, and 152); however, others do

not report noticeable impacts (66, 148, and 153). The results

can be true for the proportion of alive spermatozoa such as

sperm vitality, with a few studies investigating a noticeably

negative impact of air pollution on these parameters (138,

146).

5.6 Impact of Environmental pollutants on the male

gamete in animals

Studies conductedout on animals have revealed that

different forms of air pollution have detrimental impactson

the quality of sperm. A statistically noticeable decline in

spermatozoa production has been expressedwhich is along

with increasing abnormal sperm shapes in rats and

miceexposed to car exhaust, remarkably from diesel vehicles

(

126–130). It has been reported that there is an impact on the

nuclear quality of spermatozoa (131). It was observed by

Yauk et al. that there was a statistically noticeable increase

in sperm DNA breakage and hypermethylation in mice

which were exposed to air pollutedin a Canadian city (132).

There was a noticeable increase in the mutations rate, which

wasfound in sperm DNA, particularly on the loci of DNA

sequence repeats. The probability of genetic mutations in

germ line cell’s DNA increased by this last phenomenon

such as spermatozoa, which are transmitted to descendants

Guven et al. carried out a study on comparison sperm

parameters at males, who were exposed to exhaust from

diesel vehicles during work at toll plazas on pathways with

unexposed males, who worked as official personnel in the

exact company. The exposed group had a statistically

noticeable decline in sperm mobility, sperm counts as well

as sperm morphology especially cephalic faults (142).

Selevan et al, conducted a study on parameters of sperm in

(

133). However, Yoshida et al. reported structural alterations

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2020, Volume 8, Issue 1, Pages: 299-309

healthy young males from two areas of the CzechRepublic,

a coal-producing region with high levels of air pollution

parameters of sperm for the 4 air pollutants calculated at

region, including PM-10,CO, NO andO ) after alteration for

2 3

(

Teplice) and a less-polluted region (Prachatice).

many factors such as abstinence period and the other air

pollutants. There was a 4.22% decline in concentration of

In comparison with the low level of exposure, it was

found that there a statistically noticeable negative effect of

exposure to high and medium air pollution levels on the

proportion of motile sperm that they are respectively for low,

medium and high exposure are as follows: 36.2% ± 17;

sperm per inter quartile range (IQR) of increase in O (p =

0.01)for every exposure until before semen collection 9

days. Moreover, there was 2.92% and 3.90% declines in

concentration of sperm per IQR for an increase in O ,

27.9% ± 18.1and 32.5% ± 13.2. Those was also true for

respectively (p = 0.05 in both cases) (156) for the exposure

sperm morphology, noticeably sperm heads. On the other

hand, In comparison with the low level of exposure, they did

not have an impact of high or medium exposure to air

pollution on all sperm count which are respectively for low,

medium and high exposure as follows: 113.5 ± 130.7

million/ejaculate; 100.9 ± 97.6 and 129.1 ± 103.1 (66). The

same team revealed that therea statistically noticeable

increase in the percentage of spermatozoa along with

abnormal chromatin such as abnormalities in DNA

compaction and fragmentation in males, who were exposed

to air pollution with high levels in the Teplice are of Czech

Republic (153). Thus, these studies offer that air pollution

might change sperm DNA (131, 154). Based on these

observations, it was expressed by other authors that there is

a probable impactof air pollution upon the sperm genome at

the chromosomal level (144, 155). Therefore, the rate of

aneuploidy in the sperm of Polish men associated with

normal sperm concentrations (> or = 15 million/ml), which

consult for infertility was measured by Jurewiczet al. (155).

It was observed that there a noticeable relation between the

rate of aneuploidy as well as exposure to sure air pollutants,

significantly Y-chromosome disomy and disomy21 and PM-

10–14 days and 70–90 days before ejaculation.

Conclusion

Clinical and experimental studies provide important

evidence for damage to male gamete caused by air pollution

for its genotoxic effects and epigenetic alterations.

Diagnosis of environmentally induced male infertility by

clinicians is likely to remain a challenge. An accurate

knowledge of genotoxic effect on spermatogenesis is

important not only for the fertility of the men exposed, but

also for the offspring’s health. Indeed, the percentage of

DNA-fragmented spermatozoa in an ejaculate negatively

correlates with semen quality on the other hand it is now

clear that also a spermatozoon with fragmented DNA can

fertilize an oocyte and cause to abnormal offspring. Indeed,

the effect of epigenetic modification of sperm gene function

can affect the reproductive outcome.

A large amount of literature data, including human and

animal studies strongly suggest that the majority of risk of

different diseases in the offspring are related to epigenetic

alterations leading to imprinting disorders and adversely

affecting embryonic development. A good knowledge about

the effects of air contaminants on the molecular mechanisms

cause to male infertility could help the clinicians to identify

the cause of infertility and to define preventive and

therapeutic protocol.

10 (β = 0.58 (95% CI: 0.46–0.72)), PM-2.5 (β = 0.68 (95%

CI: 0.55–0.85)) and PM-2.5 (β = 0.78 (95% CI: 0.62–0.97)),

after alteration for 12 confusing factors, including smoking,

age ,season, alcohol consumption, , abstinence interval, past

diseases, distance from the monitoring station,.

Recently, it was reported by some authors that there is

an alteration in the circulating levels of hormones in the

gonadal axis, which follows exposure to air pollution.

According to study carried out by De Rosa et al., there is a

comparison between a group of exposed men, who work at

a toll plaza on an pathway and an unexposed group, who

work as drivers, clerks, doctors and students or live in the

same geographical region. According to altering sperm

parameters, a noticeably higher level of FSH was observed

in the group that were exposed (mean ± SE: 4.1 ± 0.3 UI/l vs

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