Trihalomethane Formation Potential in Rural Drinking Water: A Case Study Project of Seven Villages

Journal of Environmental Treatment Techniques

2020, Volume 8, Issue 1, Pages: 107-111

J. Environ. Treat. Tech.

ISSN: 2309-1185

Journal weblink: http://www.jett.dormaj.com

Trihalomethane Formation Potential in Rural

Drinking Water: A Case Study Project of Seven

Villages - Marvdasht Fars

Ali Nasiri , Neamat Jaafarzadeh *, Tayebeh Tabatabaie , Fazel Amiri , Abdulrahim Pazira

¹Department of Environmental Engineering, Bushehr Branch, Islamic Azad University, Bushehr, Iran

Environmental Technologies Research Center, Ahvaz Jundishapur University of Medical Sciences, Ahvaz, Iran

Received: 28/07/2019

Accepted: 08/09/2019

Published: 30/02/2020

Abstract

Trihalomethanes have been known as carcinogen material for human by IARC. Considering the Project of seven villages drinking

water is supplied from the Droodzen dam and Groundwater and water disinfection with chlorine is performed, this study was carried out

to determine THM concentrations in drinking water of Project of seven villages. In this descriptive-cross-sectional research, 32 samples

were taken from different points of drinking water distribution system after the villages map meshing so that covers all parts of the

system in Spring and Summer seasons in 2017. The reason for these two seasons been variations in the concentration of organic

substances in water resources and consequently the concentration of THMs precursors produced and the effect of temperature on the

formation of THMs. Gas chromatography technic was used in with electron capture detector for analyzing samples of THM for each of

four components including Chloroform, Bromodichloromethane,Dibromocholoromethane and Bromoform. The average concentration

of THMs in Spring for Chloroform, Bromoform Bromodichloromethane ,Dibromocholoromethane and THMs were

2.25±7.98,11.42±3.90, 7.43±2.72 , 5.95±2.51 and 47.06±15.70 µg/Lit and in summer were 14.69±4.11,7.55±1.99, 4.93±1.51

3.95±1.49 and 31.13±7.97 µg/Lit, respectively. Concentration of trihalomethanes and total trihalomethanes in Project of seven villages

drinking water distribution system is lower than the national and international standards and the drinking water consumers arenot at risk

of exposure to trihalomethanes.

Keywords: Trihalomethanes, Village, Distribution network, Drinking water

dibromochloromethane and dichlorobromomethane are

Introduction

regarded as the most famous THMs, among which chloroform

is absorbed through mouth, breathing and cutaneous contact,

while three other compounds are absorbed by digestive system

Disinfection is considered as the most important and

conventional water treatment process, which aims to remove

bacterias, viruses and parasites [1, 3]. The various physical and

chemical factors having their own advantages and

disadvantages are used to disinfect drinking water. The criteria

of selecting an appropriate disinfectant involve disinfecting

power, producing facility, accessing, applying and un-

disturbing water quality [4].

Trihalomethane (THM) is regarded as one of water

disinfection by-products since it is produced in chlorinated

water by reacting natural organic materials such as humic and

fulvic compounds and chlorine injected into water. A daily

increase in applying chlorine in water treatment and abundance

of natural organic material or those derived from discharging

human and underground wastewater into water produce about

[4]. Recent epidemiological studies have represented the

abundant negative impacts of THMs including sudden

abortion, birth defects, stillbirth, some effects in reproduction

such as congenital abnormalities and damage to specific organs

such as liver, kidney and nervous system and adverse impact

on circulatory system [4]. Considering the health hazards of

THMs, US EPA published rules for controlling TMHs in

drinking waters (1979). Based on this rule, the maximum

allowed value of total THMs in drinking water entitled mean

annual value was 100 (μgr/L) which decreased to 80 (μgr/L)

from 1998 to now [7]. Further, the institute of standards and

industrial research of Iran, drinking water-physical and

chemical specifications announced that the maximum of THMs

concentration in 1997 is equal to 200 (μgr/L) chloroform [8].

THMs concentration in drinking water is affected by some

factors such as temperature, concentration and nature of natural

organic material, consumed chlorine concentration, pH,

bromide ion concentration and chlorine contact time with water

80 by-products in water, of which halogen compounds are a

main part. THMs are considered as one of the most important

disinfection by-products [5], which are devoid of specific odor

in water although they associate with physiological hazards [6].

A group of researchers in United States environmental

protection agency (US EPA), Switzerland and Netherlands

found new compounds in chlorinated water, which had not been

observed in drinking water earlier (1974). These compounds

belonging to the family of chlorinated organic material were

named trihalomethane (THMs) [5]. Chloroform, bromoform,

[9, 12]. An addition of temperature results in increasing

reaction rate and consequently chlorine consumption which

leads to the enhancement of producing disinfection by-products

[2, 13, 15].

Corresponding author: Prof. Dr. Neamat Jaafarzadeh, Environmental Technologies Research Center, Ahvaz Jundishapur University

of Medical Sciences, Ahvaz, Iran. E-mail: n.jaafarzade@yahoo.com and jaafarzadeh-n@ajums.ac.ir. Tel: 09163184501.

107

Journal of Environmental Treatment Techniques

2020, Volume 8, Issue 1, Pages: 107-111

Based on the study of Fazli in Zanjan (2013), the mean

concentration of total THMs were quantified in the winter and

summer of 2013. Further, the mean concentration of

times on each position. The water existing in tank was provided

from Doroodzan dam and underground (well) waters, which

were combined in the main tank. The parameters of

temperature, pH, free residual chlorine and TOC were

measured. Three positions were considered for sampling in

order to study the change and value of THMs compounds in the

steps of transfer and distribution network. First position was

located in Kamar Zard village after the main tank. Regarding

second position, it was placed within 15km distance from

chlorination site and the main tank in Abbas Abad village, in

which THMs concentration were measured to assess the role of

water pipeline in THMs concentration. Finally, third position

was located at the farthest point and within 25km distance in

Majd Abad village.

chloroform,

bromoform,

dibromochloromethane

and

dichlorobromomethane and total THMs in water distribution

network during winter were determined as 4.7 ± 1.44, 4.72 ±

.25, 3.08 ± 0.43, 1.98 ± 0.14 and 14.19 ± 3.09 (μgr/L) ,

respectively, while their concentrations in summer were

obtained as 4.21 ± 1.83, 4.71 ± 1.8, 3.65 ± 0.81, 2.22 ± 0.14

and 14.81 ± 4.4 (μgr/L) , respectively, which were within the

range suggested by the guideline of national and international

standard [16]. According to Babaei (2011), total THMs

concentration in Ahwaz during winter, spring and summer

varied between 20.5-86 (μgr/L), 18.92-66.06 (μgr/L) and

7.35-174.7 (μgr/L), respectively. Further, total THMs

concentration was higher than the value allowed by EPA 80

μgr/L) in six cases and that allowed by the institute of

Recovery percentage (%R) and relative standard deviation

(RSD) were used to validate the method of THMs

measurement. Table 1 represents the values of %R and %RSD

related to the method of THMs measurement which was used

in the present study. Recovery percentage between 80-120% is

considered as acceptable based on recommended standard

method [33]. As shown in Table 1, the obtained recovery

percentages were in the above-mentioned range. Thus, THMs

measurement was regarded appropriate with respect to

validation. Further, THMs measurement was proper with

respect to accuracy since RSD less than 20% is considered as

acceptable [33]. The data were analyzed by using the statistical

tests of Kolmogorov-Smirnov test, PP plots and paired and one-

sample t-tests. Figures 1 and 2 demonstrate the mean

concentration of each THM and total THMs in the spring and

summer of 2017 based on EPA standard.

(

standards and industrial research of Iran and guideline of world

health organization (WHO) in three cases [17]. Regarding the

assessment of THMs concentration in the drinking water of

Tehran city, Mazlomi et al. (2010) reported that despite pre-

chlorination in input tank and mean residual chlorine in output

tank, chloroform concentration in both tanks was equal to 0.94

which was very less than the THMs concentration allowed in

drinking water in Iran and WHO 2002 (μgr/L). Further, the

maximum concentration of THM was determined in May [18].

The present study was conducted during the spring and summer

of 2017. To this end, three villages of Abbas Abad, Majd Abad

and Kamar Zard with the total of nine stations were selected

among the seven-village project of Marvdasht County in Fars

province. Sampling was repeated three times on each village

position and data were selected as maximum concentration.

Drinking water tank involved a combination of Doroodzan dam

and underground wells waters.

3 Results

The comparison of mean, standard deviation, range,

minimum and maximum of 95% of changes in THMs

concentration in the area under study is summarized in Tables

2 and 3. Based on the results, the mean concentrations of

Materials and Methods

Regarding sample collection, 40ml glass Bottle having teflon

doors were used. Before sampling, the dishes were completely

chloroform,

bromoform,

dibromochloromethane

and

dichlorobromomethane in all samples during spring were

obtained 22.25, 11.42, 5.95 and 7.43μgr/L, respectively, while

their values in summer were 14.69, 7.55, 3.95 and 3.93μgr/L,

respectively. Further, the mean concentration of total THMs

was determined 47.06 and 31.13μgr/L in spring and summer,

respectively. The THM concentrations related to two seasons

of spring and summer were compared by using paired and one-

sample t-tests (Tables 4 and 5), indicating that no significant

difference was observed between total THMs concentration in

spring and summer. As shown, the mean concentration of

washed, placed for 3hr at 300 C to evaporate their organic and

volatile materials perfectly and they reached room temperature

in desiccator. Further, 20ml normal sodium thiosulfate (4 drops

of 10% solution) was added into sampling dish to remove

residual chlorine in water and prevent from forming THMs in

sampling dish after sampling based on US EPA standard [19].

Due to the volatility of THMs, no bubble or air should be in

sample dish and its door should close completely during

sampling [20]. Furthermore, the water tap of sampling area was

left open for at least 5min in order to exit the stagnant waters

existing within pipe and enter the water flowing within main

pipes into sampling tap [20]. Sampling was iterated three times

on each position having sampling tap. Thus, the sample-

chloroform,

bromoform,

dibromochloromethane

and

dichlorobromomethane and total THMs in all samples were

less than the allowed value suggested by EPA.

containing dishes were stored at 4 C and transferred to

4 Discussion

laboratory for analyzing in order to determine sampling

measurement. EPA method 7030 was used to prepare and

extract volatile organic compounds from drinking water and

EPA method 3260 was utilized for their recognition and

measurement in order to measure THMs concentration.

Regarding EPA method 3260, gas chromatography with mass

spectrometric detection (CG-MS) was used [20].

Some methods such as modified trapping [25, 26], direct

liquid injection [27], dynamic headspace sampling [28], solid

phase micro-extraction [29] and liquid phase micro-extraction

Considering the results in Table 2, the minimum and

maximum concentration of total THMs in the samples related

to spring were determined 30 and 73 μgr/L, respectively, while

these values in the samples of summer were 25 and 48 μgr/L,

respectively. The maximum concentration of chloroform,

bromoform,

dibromochloromethane

and

dichlorobromomethanene among all samples related to the

spring and summer of 2017 were obtained as 36.87, 17.89,

11.03 and 12.29 μgr/L and 24.24, 11.87, 7.88 and 8.78 μgr/L,

respectively. THMs concentration in two seasons of spring and

summer was compared by using paired-sample t-test (Table 4),

which represents an insignificant difference between total

THMs concentration in spring and summer. Thus, no seasonal

change was observed in the present study.

[30, 32] were reported along with the conventional method of

liquid-liquid extraction technique [21, 24]. Three villages of

Abbas Abad, Majd Abad and Kamar Zard located in Marvdasht

County of Fars province with the total of nine stations were

selected for sampling. Further, sampling was repeated three

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Journal of Environmental Treatment Techniques

2020, Volume 8, Issue 1, Pages: 107-111

Based on one-sample t-test (Table 5) and comparison with

total THMs concentration in two mentioned seasons, the mean

concentration of total THMs in spring was different from EPA

standard significantly (p<0.000). Further, the result was

confirmed in summer. Fazli (2013) measured the mean

concentration of total THMs in Zanjan during the winter and

summer of 2013. Additionally, the mean concentration of

± 4.4 μgr/L, respectively, which were within the range

suggested by the guideline of national and international

standard [16]. Mazlomi et al. (2010) assessed THMs

concentration in the drinking water of Tehran city and found

that despite pre-chlorination in input tank and mean residual

chlorine in output tank, chloroform concentration in both tanks

was equal to 0.94, which was very less compared to the THMs

concentration allowed in drinking water in Iran and WHO 2002

(μgr/L). Further, the maximum concentration of THM was

obtained in May [18].

chloroform,

bromoform,

dibromochloromethane

and

dichlorobromomethane and total THMs existing in water

network during winter and summer were reported as 4.7 ± 1.44,

.72 ± 1.25, 3.08 ± 0.43, 1.98 ± 0.14 and 14.19 ± 3.09 μgr/L

and 4.21 ± 1.83, 4.71 ± 1.8, 3.65 ± 0.81, 2.22 ± 0.14 and 14.81

Table 1: Values related to THMs measurement

Std.

Deviation

Recovery

percentages

Std. Deviation Recovery percentages Parameters

Parameters

Bromodichloromethane,

CHCl Br

/55

80/82

83/35

1/13

4/67

81/05

87/73

Chloroform, CHCl

Dibromochloromethane,

CHBr Cl

2/23

Bromoform, CHBr

Table 2: Seasonal comparison of mean, standard deviation, minimum and maximum, and range of THMs concentration

TTHM

CHCl3

12/15

36/87

22/25

CHCl2Br

4/9

12/29

7/43

CHClBr2

3/13

11/03

5/95

CHBr3

6/75

17/89

11/42

Parameters

Minimum

Maximum

period

Spring

7/066

mean

24/72

10/53

24/24

14/69

13/71

8/1

7/89

2/63

7/88

3/95

5/25

11/14

5/85

11/87

7/55

Range

Minimum

Maximum

mean

3/51

8/78

4/93

5/27

Summer

1/133

6/02

Range

Table 3: 95% Confidence Interval of the Difference THM concentration

5% Confidence Interval of the

95% Confidence Interval of the Difference

Difference

Summer

Spring

Lower limit

6/71

/45

/12

/08

2/41

Upper limit

35/54

8/65

4/78

5/77

Lower limit

38/36

9/26

4/55

5/92

Upper limit

55/76

13/59

7/34

8/94

TTHM

CHBr

CHClBr

TTHM

CHBr

CHClBr

CHCl

16/96

17/83

26/67

Table 4: Comparison of THMs concentration by using paired-sample t-test

Paired Differences

5% Confidence Interval of the

Difference

Maximum

TTHM

Standard

Deviation

Std. Error

Mean

Sig. (2tailed)

Mean

Minimum

17/54

28/25

29/30

25/42

CHCl

20/62

32/91

34/14

29/60

8/25

1/50

2/28

2/36

2/04

23/70

37/58

38/98

33/79

0/000

12/48

12/96

11/19

CHClBr

CHBr

Table 5: Comparison of THMs concentration by using one-sample t-test

Test Value = 80

TTHM

Std. Error

Mean

-61/52

-73/81

-75/04

-70/50

95% Confidence Interval of the Difference

Sig. (2tailed)

Minimum

-64/26

Maximum

-58/79

CHCl

0/000

-74/75

-75/89

-71/86

-72/87

-74/19

-69/15

CHClBr

CHBr

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2020, Volume 8, Issue 1, Pages: 107-111

.E+01

.E+00

THMS

CHCL3

CHCL2Br

CHCLBr2

CHBr3

EPA

THM and EPA standard

Figure 1: Mean concentration of THMs in spring based on EPA standard

.E+01

.E+00

THMS

CHCL3

CHCL2Br

CHCLBr2

CHBr3

EPA

THM and EPA standard

Figure 2: Mean concentration of THMs in summer based on EPA standard

from drinking water through nanofiltration and air stripping

packed-column. Iranian Journal of Water and Wastewater. 57:14-

Conclusion

Based on the results, the maximum concentration of

chloroform, bromoform, dibromochloromethane and

dichlorobromomethanene among all samples were measured as

6.87 ± 7.32, 12.29 ± 2.51, 11.03 ± 2.27, 17.89 ± 3.62 and 73

14.67 μgr/L, respectively, which are less than the allowed

1(in Persian).

Mohammadian Fazli, M., Mehrasbi, MR., Azari, Z., Nasiri,

J.(2015). Evaluation of trihalomethanes (THMs) concentration in

drinking water of Zanjan in 2013. Journal of Jiroft university of

medical sciences. 2(1):85-93(in Persian).

value suggested by EPA. Thus, there is no problem about high

THM concentration in the drinking water distribution network

of seven-village project and consumers do not face with the risk

of these disinfection by-products.

5. Fazlzadeh Davil, M., Mahvi, A., Mazloomi, S., Younesian, M.,

Nazmara, S.(2011). Concentration of Trihalomethanes in Tehran

drinking water. Journal of health. 2(2):45-52(in Persian).

Luks-Betlej,

K.,

Bodzek,

D.(2002).

Occurrence

trihalomethanes, particularly those containing bromine, in Polish

drinking waters. Polish Journal of Environmental Studies.

11(3):255-60.

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